Compiled by Mrs. D Wittmann
RHETORIC Rhetoric can refer to just the persuasive qualities of language. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle strongly influenced how people have traditionally viewed rhetoric. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle RhetoricI.1.2, Kennedy 37).
The Sophists Many historians credit the ancient city-state of Athens as the birthplace of classical rhetoric. Because Athenian democracy marshaled every free male into politics, every Athenian man had to be ready to stand in the Assembly and speak to persuade his countrymen to vote for or against a particular piece of legislation. A man’s success and influence in ancient Athens depended on his rhetorical ability. Consequently, small schools dedicated to teaching rhetoric began to form. The first of these schools began in the 5th century B.C. among an itinerant group of teachers called the Sophists.
The Sophists would travel from polis to polis teaching young men in public spaces how to speak and debate. The most famous of the Sophists schools were led by Gorgias and Isocrates. Because rhetoric and public speaking were essential for success in political life, students were willing to pay Sophist teachers great sums of money in exchange for tutoring. A typical Sophist curriculum consisted of analyzing poetry, defining parts of speech, and instruction on argumentation styles. They taught their students how to make a weak argument stronger and a strong argument weak.
Sophists prided themselves on their ability to win any debate on any subject even if they had no prior knowledge of the topic through the use of confusing analogies, flowery metaphors, and clever wordplay. In short, the Sophists focused on style and presentation even at the expense of truth. The negative connotation that we have with the word “sophist” today began in ancient Greece. For the ancient Greeks, a “sophist” was a man who manipulated the truth for financial gain. It had such a pejorative meaning that Socrates was executed by the Athenians on the charge of being a Sophist. Both Plato and Aristotle condemned Sophists for relying solely on emotion to persuade an audience and for their disregard for truth. Despite criticism from their contemporaries, the Sophists had a huge influence on developing the study and teaching of rhetoric.
Since then, Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric has been reduced in many situations to mean simply “persuasion.” At its best, this simplification of rhetoric has led to a long tradition of people associating rhetoric with politicians, lawyers, or other occupations noted for persuasive speaking. At its worst, the simplification of rhetoric has led people to assume that rhetoric is merely something that manipulative people use to get what they want (usually regardless of moral or ethical concerns).
ARISTOTLE While the great philosopher Aristotle criticized the Sophists’ misuse of rhetoric, he did see it as a useful tool in helping audiences see and understand truth. In his treatise,The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle established a system of understanding and teaching rhetoric. In The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle defines rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”
While Aristotle favored persuasion through reason alone, he recognized that at times an audience would not be sophisticated enough to follow arguments based solely on scientific and logical principles. In those instances, persuasive language and techniques were necessary for truth to be taught. Moreover, rhetoric armed a man with the necessary weapons to refute demagogues and those who used rhetoric for evil purposes. According to Aristotle, sometimes you had to fight fire with fire.
After establishing the need for rhetorical knowledge, Aristotle sets forth his system for effectively applying rhetoric: Three Means of Persuasion (logos, pathos, and ethos) Three Genres of Rhetoric (forensic, deliberative, and epideictic) Rhetorical topics Parts of speech Effective use of style The Art of Rhetoric had a tremendous influence on the development of the study of rhetoric for the next 2,000 years. Roman rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian frequently referred to Aristotle’s work, and universities required students to study The Art of Rhetoric during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Rhetoric was slow to develop in ancient Rome, but it started to flourish when that empire conquered Greece and began to be influenced by its traditions. While ancient Romans incorporated many of the rhetorical elements established by the Greeks, they diverged from the Grecian tradition in many ways. For example, orators and writers in ancient Rome depended more on stylistic flourishes, riveting stories, and compelling metaphors and less on logical reasoning than their ancient Greek counterparts.
CICERO The first master rhetorician Rome produced was the great statesman Cicero. During his career he wrote several treatises on the subject including On Invention,On Oration, and Topics. His writings on rhetoric guided schools on the subject well into Renaissance. Cicero’s approach to rhetoric emphasized the importance of a liberal education. According to Cicero, to be persuasive a man needed knowledge in history, politics, art, literature, ethics, law, and medicine. By being liberally educated, a man would be able to connect with any audience he addressed.
QUINTILIAN The second Roman to leave his mark on the study of rhetoric was Quintilian. After honing his rhetorical skills for years in the Roman courts, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. There he developed a study system that took a student through different stages of intense rhetorical training. In 95 AD, Quintilian immortalized his rhetorical education system in a twelve-volume textbook entitled Institutio Oratoria.
Institutio Oratoria covers all aspects of the art of rhetoric. While Quintilian focuses primarily on the technical aspects of effective rhetoric, he also spends a considerable amount of time setting forth a curriculum he believes should serve as the foundation of every man’s education. In fact, Quintilian’s rhetorical education ideally begins as soon as a baby is born. For example, he counsels parents to find their sons nurses that are articulate and well-versed in philosophy.
Quintilian devotes much of his treatise to fleshing out and explaining the Five Canons of Rhetoric. First seen in Cicero’s De Inventione,the Five Canons provide a guide on creating a powerful speech: inventio (invention): The process of developing and refining your arguments. dispositio (arrangement): The process of arranging and organizing your arguments for maximum impact. elocutio (style): The process of determining how you present your arguments using figures of speech and other rhetorical techniques. memoria (memory): The process of learning and memorizing your speech so you can deliver it without the use of notes. Memory-work not only consisted of memorizing the words of a specific speech, but also storing up famous quotes, literary references, and other facts that could be used in impromptu speeches. actio (delivery): The process of practicing how you deliver your speech using
However, over the last century or so, the academic definition and use of “rhetoric” has evolved to include any situation in which people consciously communicate with each other.
In brief, individual people tend to perceive and understand just about everything differently from one another (this difference varies to a lesser or greater degree depending on the situation, of course). This expanded perception has led a number of more contemporary rhetorical philosophers to suggest that rhetoric deals with more than just persuasion. Instead of just persuasion, rhetoric is the set of methods people use to identify with each other—to encourage each other to understand things from one another’s perspectives (see Burke 25).
From interpersonal relationships to international peace treaties, the capacity to understand or modify another’s perspective is one of the most vital abilities that humans have. Hence, understanding rhetoric in terms of “identification” helps us better communicate and evaluate all such situations.
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/625/01/
Rhetorical Appeals Rhetorical appeals are attempts by the speaker to persuade an audience - or to put it another way, attempts to say things that an audience would find appealing. After more than 2000 years, we still refer to classical rhetorical appeals identified by Aristotle - ethos, logos, and pathos - which appeal to the audience's trust, reason, and emotions, respectively.
How can you change someone's mind? (hint: facts aren't always enough) - Hugo Mercier Let’s Begin… Why do arguments change people’s minds in some cases and backfire in others? Hugo Mercier explains how arguments are more convincing when they rest on a good knowledge of the audience, taking into account what the audience believes, who they trust, and what they value. https://ed.ted.com/lessons/how-can-you-change-someone-s-mind-spoiler-facts-don-t-work-so-well-hugo-mercier#watch
ETHOS = HAND (Greek for character – credibility argument) Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy people who should be listened to when they discuss a given topic. It relies on authority and reputation.
Ethical Appeals: Prompts 1. Is the writer informed and trustworthy? How does the writer establish authority? 2. Is the writer fair-minded and unbiased? How does the writer establish reasonableness? 3. Does the writer use sources knowledgeably and responsibly? 4. How does the writer describe the views of others and deal with opposing views?
LOGOS = HEAD (Greek for word - logical argument) Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas. Appealing to logos means thinking logically - having a clear main idea and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to support it.
Logical Appeals: Prompts 1. Is the evidence sufficient, representative, and relevant? 2. Is the reasoning sound? 3. Does the argument contain any logical fallacies or unjustified assumptions? 4. Are there any missing or mistaken premises?
PATHOS = HEART (Greek for suffering or experience– emotional argument) Speakers appeal to emotions, values, desires, and hopes, on one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other. Although an argument that appeals exclusively to the emotions is by definition weak - using pathos generally involves propaganda.
Emotional Appeals: Prompts 1. What values or beliefs does the writer address, either directly or indirectly? 2. Are the emotional appeals legitimate and fair? 3. Does the writer oversimplify or dramatize an issue? 4. Do the emotional arguments highlight or shift attention away from the evidence?
Checklist for reading and evaluating arguments 1. What is the writer's thesis, or central claim? 2. Are there gaps in reasoning? Does the argument contain any logical fallacies? 3. What assumptions does the argument rest on? Are there any unstated assumptions?
4. What appeals - ethical, logical, or emotional - does the writer make? Are these appeals effective? 5. What evidence does the writer use? Could there be alternative interpretations of the evidence? 6. How does the writer handle opposing views? 7. If you are not persuaded by the writer's arguments, what counterarguments could you make to the writer?
Writing an Argument Essay Key Features: 1. A thesis, stated as a clear position on a debatable issue, frames an argument essay. The issue is debatable because reasonable people disagree about it. 2. An examination of the issue's context indicates why the issue is important, why readers should care about it, or how your position fits into the debates surrounding the topic.
3. Sufficient, representative, and relevant evidence supports the argument's claims. Evidence needs to be specific and persuasive - quoted, summarized, or paraphrased fairly and accurately - and cited correctly. 4. Opposing positions are summarized and countered. By anticipating and countering objections to your position, you establish common ground with readers and show yourself as a reasonable and well-informed writer.
Ethical appeals as a writer To accept your argument, a reader must see you as trustworthy, fair, and reasonable. When you acknowledge alternative positions, you build common ground with readers and gain their trust by showing that you are knowledgeable. When you use sources responsibly (summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting the views of others), you inspire readers' confidence in your judgment.
Logical appeals as a writer To persuade readers, you need to appeal to their sense of logic and sound reasoning. When you provide sufficient evidence, you offer readers logical support for your argument. When you clarify the assumptions that underlie your arguments and avoid logical fallacies, you appeal to readers' desire for reason.
Emotional appeals as a writer To establish common ground with readers, you need to appeal to their beliefs and values as well as their minds. When you offer readers vivid examples, startling statistics, or compelling visuals, you engage readers and deepen their interest in your argument. When you balance emotional appeals with logial appeals, you highlight the human dimension of an issue to show the readers why they should care about your argument.
Using ethos, logos, and pathos as a speaker To deliver an effective speech, you must establish your credibility (ethos) and appeal to your listeners' sense of logic and reason (logos), as well as their values and beliefs (pathos).
A speaker's ethos comes from being informed, trustworthy, and reasonable. When you speak knowledgeably about your subject, you inspire the listeners' confidence. To engage the members of your audience, you must appeal to their need for relevant and reliable evidence. When your logic is sound and you clarify assumptions, you gain trust. To establish common ground with your audience, you need to appeal to their values and beliefs and show respect for their ideas. When you use vivid details, and visual evidence, you deepen the interest in the human dimension of your subject.
PROPAGANDA Propaganda is "information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view" (Oxford Online Dictionaries). Propaganda is often associated with the psychological mechanisms of influencing and altering the attitude of a population toward a specific cause, position or political agenda in an effort to form a consensus to a standard set of belief patterns. Propaganda is information that is not impartial and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively (perhaps lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or using loaded messages to produce an emotional (pathos) rather than a rational response to the information presented.
How is this an appeal to emotion? (pathos) Which type of propaganda is used? Explain. Is this effective or is making the bold assertion that parents who allow their children to eat meat are guilty of child abuse make this message ineffective? Is this advertisement appealing? Explain.
LOGICAL FALLACIES According to Aristotle in his treatise,The Art of Rhetoric, a speaker or writer has three ways to persuade his audience: ethos (appeal to the speaker’s character), pathos (appeal to emotion), and logos (appeal to logic). Aristotle believed that out of the three means of persuasion, logos was superior and that ideally all arguments should be won or lost on reason alone. The problem with using logos as your sole means of persuasion is that it’s fraught with many opportunities for you to mess up and make errors in reasoning. These errors are called logical fallacies. Just as there is formal and informal logic, there are formal and informal fallacies.